Deep Water research

UK France Germany Electricity Mix Compared

Compare the electricity generated in the United Kingdom, France and Germany during 2024. How did nuclear, wind, solar and fossil generation shares differ, and how do net electricity imports change the interpretation of each country's carbon intensity? Reconcile disagreements between public primary datasets, keep units and accounting boundaries explicit, and distinguish generation-based from consumption-based measures. Make the full report easy to digest: use source-supported charts for useful numerical comparisons, explain the main finding before the detail in each passage, and keep material caveats beside the figures they qualify.

Sep 25, 2026112 sources reviewed

Key Takeaways

Taken together, RTE, Electricity Maps and Carbon Brief indicate France kept 2024 power far cleaner than Germany or Britain. [14][45][47]

  • In 2024, France generated 539.0 TWh [8], including 361.7 TWh from nuclear in 2024 [8]; in 2024, Germany's total electricity generated was 431.7 TWh [20], and 2024 was the first full year without any contribution from nuclear energy [20]; in 2024, UK electricity generation fell to 285.0 TWh [24].
  • In 2024, France generated 46.8 TWh from wind and 24.8 TWh from solar [8] alongside 20.0 TWh from fossil fuels in 2024 [8]; in 2024, Germany generated 111.9 TWh from onshore wind and 25.7 TWh from offshore wind [23], 63.3 TWh from solar in 2024 [23] and 176.8 TWh from conventional generation in 2024 [23]; in 2024, UK wind generation was 83.3 TWh and solar generation was 14.4 TWh [24], while gas stood at 30.4 per cent of total generation [24]. A separate excerpt reports approx. 72.2 TWh photovoltaic generation in 2024, of which 59.8 TWh was fed into the public grid and 12.4 TWh was used for self-consumption [9]. Taken together, [23] and [9] indicate different reported solar totals, with the approx. 72.2 TWh total [9] stated with a fed-into-grid and self-consumption split, and the figures are retained without merging.
  • In 2024, the average carbon intensity of French electricity generation reached 21.7 gCO2eq/kWh [17]; Germany's production-based carbon intensity in 2024 was 367.8 gCO2eq/kWh and flow-traced carbon intensity in 2024 was 334.5 gCO2eq/kWh [45]; the carbon intensity of UK electricity fell to 124gCO2/kWh in 2024 [47], using a methodology that includes emissions for imported electricity based on the daily electricity mix in the country of origin [47].
  • In 2024, France's net trade balance reached 89 TWh, from 101.3 TWh of gross exports and 12.3 TWh of imports [17], and exports at that 89 TWh record level helped to avoid emissions amounting to 19.8 MtCO2eq across Europe in 2024 [17]; Germany's import surplus was 31.9 TWh in 2024, up from 15.3 TWh in 2023 [20]; UK net imports rose by 40 per cent from 2023 to reach 33.4 TWh, the highest value within the published time series [24]. A separate excerpt reports the record 33.3 TWh net import total for 2024 for the United Kingdom [34]. Taken together, [24] and [34] indicate different reported UK 2024 net-import totals differing by 0.1 TWh, retained without merging.
  • Analysis based on German net electricity generation for public electricity supply, defined as gross electricity generation minus consumption of power plants' auxiliary services [9], notes the extrapolated values from October to December are subject to larger tolerances [9]; on that boundary, imports rose to a net total of 24.9 TWh in 2024 [9], kept separate from the 31.9 TWh import-surplus figure [20]; greenhouse gas emissions per kilowatt-hour generated in France do not include energy exchanges at interconnections (electricity imports and exports) [3].

[!WARNING] Germany's imports are cleaner than domestic production, lowering the carbon footprint of consumed electricity [45]. By replacing fossil-fired generation abroad, French exports helped to avoid emissions across Europe in 2024 [17]. The carbon intensity methodology accounts for lifecycle emissions from biomass and includes emissions for imported electricity [47]. Taken together, [45][17] and [47] indicate that consumed-electricity footprints reflect trade and origin-mix effects beyond domestic production.

Abstract

RTE reports the average carbon intensity of French electricity generation reached 21.7 gCO2eq/kWh in 2024 [17], with an intensity of 30.2 gCO2eq/kWh when life-cycle emissions are taken into account [17], and states that in Europe in 2024 only Norway recorded a lower carbon intensity than France, at 6 gCO2eq/kWh for direct emissions [17]. Carbon Brief reports the carbon intensity of UK electricity at 124 gCO2/kWh in 2024 [47], with a methodology that includes emissions for imported electricity based on the daily electricity mix in the country of origin [47] and accounts for lifecycle emissions from biomass [47]. Electricity Maps reports German 2024 carbon intensity as 367.8 gCO2eq/kWh production-based [45] and 334.5 gCO2eq/kWh flow-traced [45]. Electricity Maps states production-based carbon intensity is 33.3g higher than flow-traced carbon intensity in 2024, which means Germany's imports are cleaner than domestic production, lowering the carbon footprint of consumed electricity [45]. ECON-PowerCI states Germany imports nuclear power from France [48], and separately states Germany's consumption-based power carbon intensity is lower than its production-based intensity [48].

RTE reports French electricity generation in 2024 as 539.0 TWh [8], including 361.7 TWh from nuclear in 2024 [8], 20.0 TWh from fossil fuels in 2024 [8], and 46.8 TWh from wind and 24.8 TWh from solar [8]. Bundesnetzagentur reports German total generation in 2024 as 431.7 TWh measured as net electricity generation fed into the general supply network less electricity consumed by power plants themselves [23], and SMARD reports 2024 as the first full year without any contribution from nuclear energy [20]. Fraunhofer ISE reports wind power was the most important electricity source in 2024, contributing 136.4 TWh to net public electricity generation [9]. UK electricity generation fell to 285.0 TWh in 2024 because record-high electricity imports displaced some UK-based generation [24]; UK net electricity imports were 33.4 TWh in 2024, the highest value within the published time series [24], while [34] reports a 33.3 TWh net import total for 2024 [34]. UK wind generation was 83.3 TWh and solar generation was 14.4 TWh [24]. Fraunhofer ISE defines net public electricity supply as only generation from power plants for public supply and not for large industry or electricity which power plants use to operate [15], with renewables at 62.7 percent of net public electricity generation compared with around 55 percent of gross power consumption in 2024 [15]. RTE reports the French net balance in 2024 as 89.0 TWh in the direction of exports [8], and French exports avoided 19.8 MtCO2eq across Europe in 2024 by replacing fossil-fired generation abroad [17]. Carbon Brief reports the carbon intensity of UK electricity fell to 124gCO2/kWh in 2024 [47]. Ember notes system operators struggle to measure behind-the-meter solar accurately as capacity increases [33] and that monthly published data are often provisional and far from perfect [33]; Bundesnetzagentur monitoring notes deviations from other data reflect different data sources, definitions and survey periods [7] and that physical load flows and commercial exchange schedules need not match [7].

RTE reports low-carbon (nuclear and renewable) reached 95% of electricity produced in France for the first time [14], SMARD reports renewables accounted for 59.0% of Germany's total generation [23], and [24] reports low-carbon (nuclear plus renewables) rose to 64.7% of UK generation in 2024, a new record high [24]. Taken together, [17] indicates French life-cycle intensity exceeds direct intensity. Ember emission factors are domestic electricity generation mix (production mix), based on electricity generated within the country, excluding imports [10], while electricity supply measures what was supplied to consumers, excluding the electricity used in the process of generation or consumed on site by the generator [5].

Table of Contents

  • Key Takeaways
  • Abstract
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Background
  • 3. Findings
    • 3.1 Accounting Definitions for Generation Supply Consumption
    • 3.2 2024 Generation Totals and Fuel Mix Shares
    • 3.3 Reconciling Generation Differences Across Primary Datasets
    • 3.4 2024 Net Imports Exports and Interconnector Flows
    • 3.5 Imports and Generation Versus Consumption Carbon Intensity
  • 4. Discussion
  • 5. Conclusion
  • References

1. Introduction

Compare 2024 electricity generation in the United Kingdom, France and Germany through nuclear, wind, solar and fossil shares, then test how net imports reshape carbon-intensity readings. Evidence suggests trade relocates emissions: RTE attributes avoided foreign emissions to French exports, and ElectricityMaps attributes lower German consumed intensity to cleaner imports [17][45]. Evidence suggests import accounting matters, as Carbon Brief counts import effects and ECON-PowerCI contrasts production and consumption intensities [47][48]. Taken together, RTE and ElectricityMaps indicate trade reshapes readings [17][45].

This note defines 2024 as the comparison year, with total generation of 285.0 TWh in the United Kingdom in 2024 [24], 539.0 TWh in France in 2024 [8] and 431.7 TWh in Germany in 2024 measured as net electricity generation fed into the general supply network less electricity consumed by power plants themselves, excluding Deutsche Bahn, industrial and closed distribution networks [23]. It tracks nuclear output of 361.7 TWh in France in 2024 [8] and 40.6 TWh in the United Kingdom in 2024 [24], wind output of 136.4 TWh contributing to net public electricity generation in Germany in 2024 [9], solar output of approx. 72.2 TWh from photovoltaic systems in Germany in 2024, of which 59.8 TWh was fed into the public grid and 12.4 TWh was used for self-consumption [9], and 24.8 TWh solar in France in 2024 [8], and fossil output of 20.0 TWh in France in 2024 [8]. Taken together, [9] and [23] indicate the German photovoltaic total is not directly comparable to totals on a different boundary, because the approx. 72.2 TWh figure includes self-consumption [9] while the other boundary measures net generation fed into the general supply network [23]. Trade balances and intensity factors are detailed in Findings. Energy appears as TWh in these aggregates [8][23][24]. Taken together, [15] and [23] indicate denominators change shares, because renewables were 62.7 percent of net public electricity generation compared with around 55 percent of gross power consumption in 2024 [15] while total-generation shares are calculated differently from gross-consumption shares [23], so each share keeps its stated denominator. Ember emission factors are domestic electricity generation mix (production mix), based on electricity generated within the country, excluding imports [10].

Fraunhofer ISE load excludes pumped electricity consumption and own consumption of conventional power plants [9]. RTE consumption values include self-consumed electricity volumes in France [14]. Binding exchange schedules measure commercial cross-border electricity exchange while physical load flows measure actual cross-border flow and the two need not match [7]. RTE separates gross exports and imports from the net export balance [14]. ENTSO-E includes transmission and distribution losses in total load [6]. Fraunhofer ISE load includes grid losses [9].

2. Background

Taken together, [5][6] and [7] indicate separate definitions for generation, supply and consumption: DESNZ distinguishes electricity generation, which measures what is generated, from electricity supply, which measures what was supplied to consumers excluding electricity used in generation or consumed on site by the generator [5]; ENTSO-E calculates national electrical consumption as net generation plus imports minus exports minus consumption of pumps [6] and distinguishes load as a snapshot of one single moment (power in GW) from consumption describing a time period (energy in GWh) [6]; the Bundesnetzagentur calculates gross electricity consumption from gross generation plus imports minus exports, where imports and exports are both physical load flows [7]. In the Bundesnetzagentur example, the renewable share of just under 53 percent uses gross electricity consumption as denominator, while shares of around 56.0 percent or more for 2023 usually refer to so-called grid load, for example SMARD [7].

Taken together, [5][6] and [2] indicate generation, supply and consumption are defined by separate measures. DESNZ distinctions are covered elsewhere in this section [5]. ENTSO-E calculates national electrical consumption as net generation plus imports minus exports minus consumption of pumps [6], with ENTSO-E loss coverage and the RTE consumption formula covered elsewhere in this section [6][2].

Taken together, [6][7] and [9] indicate net generation is described as gross generation minus auxiliary, operating or own consumption [6][7][9], with wording differing between sources and [6] additionally mentioning losses in the main generator transformers [6]. [7] defines gross electricity generation as electrical work produced by a generation unit measured at the generator terminals [7]. [6] defines net generation as gross generation less the electrical energy absorbed by generating auxiliaries and the losses in the main generator transformers [6]. [7] defines net electricity generation as gross generation minus operating and own consumption [7]. [9] defines net electricity generation as gross electricity generation minus consumption of the power plants' auxiliary services [9]. The analysis uses German net electricity generation for the public electricity supply, which is the energy fed into the public grid and is defined as gross electricity generation minus consumption of the power plants' auxiliary services, with October to December extrapolated values subject to larger tolerances [9]. Solar generation was “2024: 63.2 TWh” [21]. Only electricity generated and fed into the general supply network is included; electricity generated by private household solar installations and used by the households themselves is not included [21].

The Bundesnetzagentur monitoring report states that the share of electricity generation from renewable sources in gross electricity consumption was just under 53 percent, while a share of around 56.0 percent or more for 2023 usually refers to so-called grid load, for example SMARD [7].

Table 1. German 2024 renewable shares by denominator, each with its scope caveat | Share reported | Denominator and scope | Caveat beside figure | | For net-public versus gross-consumption shares, see the accounting-boundaries discussion | Fraunhofer ISE says net public electricity supply includes only electricity generation from power plants for public supply and not for large industry or the electricity which power plants use to operate [15] | Germany's target to reach an 80 percent renewables share by 2030 refers to gross power consumption [15] | | 56 percent in the load; around 58.6% in total net electricity generation including the power plants of companies in the processing, mining and quarrying industries [9] | Load includes the electricity consumption from the grid and the grid losses [9]. For pumped-use and own-use exclusions, see the net-generation and load discussion | Total net electricity generation also includes electricity generated by industry and commerce for their own use, which is mainly gas-fired [9] | | For total-generation shares with gross-consumption caveats, see Findings | See Findings for basis | See Findings for caveat |

Taken together, [7] and [8] indicate commercial exchange and physical flow may differ. ENTSO-E defines exchange balance as the difference between the import and export physical flows on each interconnection line of a country, with physical flows metered at agreed accounting points [6]. The Bundesnetzagentur describes Verbundaustauschfahrpläne as commercial cross-border electricity exchange and physical load flows as actual cross-border electricity flow, noting the two need not necessarily match, for example because of loop flows [7]. RTE states commercial exchanges result from market transactions between actors in different countries, while physical exchanges record actual flows on interconnectors directly linking countries and may differ from commercial exchanges [8].

Table 2. 2024 trade gross against net, with boundary caveats | System | Gross flows 2024 | Net balance 2024 | Caveat beside figure | | France | See commercial-exchange paragraph above | France was a net exporter 98% of the time in 2024 [17] | See commercial-exchange paragraph above | | Germany | See commercial-exchange paragraph above | See commercial-exchange paragraph above | The values for cross-border physical electricity flows are slightly lower than those of the cross-border electricity market [43]. Taken together, [23] and [21] indicate different reported commercial totals for Germany in 2024. | | United Kingdom | See Findings | See Findings. Taken together, [24] and [34] indicate different reported 2024 net-import totals. | See Findings |

Taken together, [3] and [32] indicate emissions accounting differs by calculation and attribution. Direct emissions are obtained by multiplying the output of the source, in megawatt-hours, by its emission factor in CO2 equivalent tonnes per megawatt-hour [3]. One RTE page estimates nearly 15% of emissions linked to electricity production in France were emitted to produce electricity that was exported, with emissions linked strictly to French electricity consumption at 10.0 MtCO2eq [32].

RTE measures real-time French consumption indirectly from telemetered data on RPT and RPD generation plants and on cross-border interconnection lines [2]. The Bundesnetzagentur attributes a 26.0 TWh fall in nuclear generation to the shutdowns of Isar 2, Emsland A and Neckarwestheim 2 on 15 April 2023 [7].

3. Findings

3.1 Accounting Definitions for Generation Supply Consumption

DUKES chapter 5: statistics on electricity from generation through to sales [1]. Electricity generation measures what is generated while electricity supply measures what was supplied to consumers, excluding the electricity used in the process of generation or consumed on site by the generator [5]. Total electricity supplied plus imports matches with demand as electricity is supplied until demand is met [5]. Total electricity demand is larger than electricity consumption [5]. Total demand also accounts for electricity consumed in the process of generation or to produce fuel for generation, as well as for electricity lost in transmission or distribution from where it was generated to where it was consumed [5]. `Final consumption' refers to electricity consumption by end users, excluding electricity consumed in the process of generation or by fuel industries and transmission or distribution losses [5].

Bundesnetzagentur measures Brutto-Stromerzeugung at generator terminals [7]. ENTSO-E defines net as gross less auxiliaries and main-transformer losses [6]. Fraunhofer ISE defines German net as gross minus auxiliary-service consumption [9], while the Bundesnetzagentur defines Netto-Stromerzeugung as gross minus operating and own consumption for nominal time unless noted [7]. German public supply uses net fed into the public grid as gross minus own consumption, according to Fraunhofer ISE [13]. Fraunhofer ISE notes October to December extrapolated values carry larger tolerances [9]. Reported gross understates the true value because self-consumption and self-generator volumes are only recorded from 10 MW installed capacity per site, according to the Bundesnetzagentur [7].

Bundesnetzagentur adds physical trade to gross generation [7]. Bruttostromverbrauch sums gross generation plus imports minus exports as physical load flows, according to the Bundesnetzagentur [7]. The Bundesnetzagentur sums renewable plus non-renewable gross plus cross-border inflows minus outflows with gross above net because it includes power-plant self-consumption [7]. Wikipedia's German sector entry defines consumption as generation minus exports plus imports minus distribution losses [18]. The Bundesnetzagentur treats its generation chapter as net unless stated otherwise [7]. Section 2 reconciles vintages on these denominators.

  • RTE keeps losses inside French consumption and pumping outside [2].
  • RTE defines real-time consumption including losses as production plus imports minus exports minus pumping [2].
  • Gross or uncorrected consumption covers France including Corsica including losses but excluding pumping [8].
  • RTE treats corrected consumption as level with reference temperatures excluding 29 February in leap years [8].
  • 2024 consumption reached 449.2 TWh weather-corrected [14].
  • Section 2 uses this correction boundary.

French totals include self-consumed volumes, according to RTE [14][17]. RTE defines self-consumption as use by a consumer of all or part of electricity from its own installation [8]. For non-telemetered plants, forfait estimates cover the whole France perimeter, according to RTE [2]. RTE reports quarter-hourly points for consumption with day-before and same-day forecasts [2]. Shown realizations are raw real-time plant measurements subject to later correction, according to RTE [2]. RTE refines real-time measurement a posteriori with meter readings from all consumers [2]. Demand varies by day and season as a load curve forecast daily by COSE-P, according to RTE [2]. RTE's Paris centre COSE-P adjusts production volumes to consumer needs [2]. Gaps mainly reflect weather versus forecast temperature and light, according to RTE [2].

ENTSO-E treats load as power and consumption as energy [6]. Load is a GW snapshot while consumption is GWh over a period related by summed hourly loads, according to ENTSO-E [6]. ENTSO-E excludes auxiliary consumption from load calculations [6]. Net generation including all connected auto-generation such as household solar whether estimated or measured enters load calculations, according to ENTSO-E [6]. ENTSO-E defines national consumption as net consumption plus losses covering transmission and distribution [6]. Pump consumption is energy absorbed by motor pumps lifting water including auxiliaries and transformer losses during pumping, according to ENTSO-E [6]. ENTSO-E splits hydro into run-of-river renewable excluding pumped storage, reservoir and pumped storage often estimated as pumping use multiplied by efficiency such as 0.7 [6]. Intake lies above later regenerated output, according to the Bundesnetzagentur [7].

Fraunhofer ISE excludes own-use from German load [9]. The grid load boundary is grid consumption plus losses excluding pumped-storage use and conventional-plant own consumption, according to Fraunhofer ISE [9][13]. The Bundesnetzagentur records use-side Eigenverbräuche as self-generated power not fed into general supply [7].

Taken together, [7] and [7] indicate delivered quantities differ by deliverer.

Quantity Delivered by Delivered to
Entnahmemenge [7] electricity network operators [7] final consumers [7]
Abgabemenge [7] electricity or gas suppliers [7] final consumers [7]

Bundesnetzagentur traces supply-use gaps to survey complexity [7]. Supply-use differences reflect complex multi-actor survey structure, according to the Bundesnetzagentur [7]. The Bundesnetzagentur attributes deviations from other data to different data sources, definitions and survey periods, with survey coverage of the respective market areas consistently above 90 percent, in many areas 100 percent [7].

Umweltbundesamt limits renewables to six sources [4]. Wind, photovoltaics, hydropower, biomass, biogenic waste share and geothermal make renewable electricity, according to the Umweltbundesamt [4]. The Umweltbundesamt covers German wind from onshore and offshore installations [4]. Only 50 percent of household-waste combustion electricity counts as renewable under the 8 November 2007 arrêté, according to RTE [8]. Section 1 applies these perimeters.

Taken together, [5] and [11] indicate different placement of pumped storage. Hydro includes generation from pumped storage while electricity used in pumping is included under Energy Industry Use [5]. Gross electricity production according to the Eurostat energy balance and the energy balance for Germany, provided that pumped storage production is eliminated from conversion output in Germany's energy balance or pumped storage plants are regarded as storage facilities [11]. These power stations are net consumers of electrical energy, but they contribute to balancing the grid, which can facilitate renewable generation elsewhere, for example by 'soaking up' surplus renewable output at off-peak times and releasing the energy when it is required [19]. Section 2 tracks shifts.

RTE keeps French per-kWh emissions generation-based [3]. Imports and exports at interconnections sit outside the indicator, according to RTE [3]. RTE limits the indicator to GHGs from combustion in French thermal plants [3]. Total direct emissions divided by total output at any instant yields the indicator, according to RTE [3]. RTE distinguishes production as national installations while consumption is non-exported share plus imports [8]. Real-time values consolidate with available metering over following months and finalise next year with complete metering, according to RTE [3]. Section 4 compares intensities.

Climatiq disclaims GHG Protocol alignment for its dataset [10]. The dataset is not aligned with GHG Protocol Scope 2 and Scope 3 Category 3.3, according to Climatiq [10]. Climatiq sets the LCA boundary to upstream-electricity_generation [10]. Unit CO2 release with CHP electricity share allocated under AGFW FW 309 Part 6 December 2014 defines generation CO2, according to the Bundesnetzagentur [7]. Section 4 keeps this limit.

EU Regulation No 543/2013 mandates Transparency Platform submissions [12]. Member State providers and owners must submit fundamental generation, load, transmission and balancing information for publication, according to EU Regulation No 543/2013 of 14 June 2013 [12]. ENTSO-E notes Detailed Data Descriptions referenced in the Manual of Procedures detail that data [12].

RTE and Clean Energy Wire fix ancillary denominators [8][15]. RTE defines load factor as production over installed capacity with monthly and annual averages of 30-minute factors [8]. Residual consumption remains for dispatchable means after run-of-river, solar and wind at each instant, according to RTE [8]. The Bundesnetzagentur defines installed net nominal capacity as highest sustained nominal output at handover with actual output varying with internal or external factors [7]. Germany's 80 percent renewables share by 2030 refers to gross consumption, according to Clean Energy Wire [15]. Sections 1 and 2 use these boundaries.

The table is sourced from Arbeitsgemeinschaft Energiebilanzen (AGEB), effective June 2026, as at 08 September 2026 [11]. Separately, the Carbon Intensity API forecasts the carbon intensity and generation mix 96+ hours ahead for each region in Great Britain [16]. For that API, data is retrieved in UTC time and is returned as a CSV file [16]. For that API, only 30 days of data can be downloaded at a time [16]. For that API, data cannot be downloaded between years [16]. For that API, data is only available after 2017-09-26 [16].

3.2 2024 Generation Totals and Fuel Mix Shares

RTE reports French electricity output of 539.0 TWh in 2024, its highest level for five years and in line with the 2014-2019 average of 537.5 TWh [17]. SMARD reports the total amount of electricity generated in 2024 was 431.7 TWh, down on the previous year (450.5 TWh) [20]. DUKES reports UK electricity generation fell to 285.0 TWh in 2024, down 3.1 per cent from 2023, due to record-high electricity imports which displaced some UK-based generation [24]. Taken together, [17][20] and [24] indicate France highest at 539.0 TWh and the UK lowest at 285.0 TWh among these three source-reported totals. Bundesnetzagentur defines the German total as net electricity generation fed into the general supply network less the electricity consumed by power plants themselves, excluding electricity generated in the Deutsche Bahn network or within industrial networks and closed distribution networks [23]. Bundesnetzagentur reports 437.7 TWh for 2024 actual generation with the same net definition [21]. Taken together, [23] and [21] indicate different reported values for 2024 actual generation.

2024 was the first full year without any contribution from nuclear energy, after 1.5% in 2023 and 6.7% in 2022 [20]. Wind accounted for the largest share of total generation among all energy sources, with 111.9 TWh from onshore wind and 25.7 TWh from offshore wind [23]. Onshore wind had a 25.9% share of total generation [20]. Solar generation amounted to 63.3 TWh (2023: 55.7 TWh); the largest increase in generation was from solar, due to above-average levels of sunshine in the summer and growth in installed capacity [23]. Photovoltaic systems generated approx. 72.2 TWh in 2024, of which 59.8 TWh was fed into the public grid and 12.4 TWh was used for self-consumption [9]. Conventional generation was down 10.9% on the previous year to a total of 176.8 TWh [23]. Generation from lignite was 8.8% lower at 71.0 TWh and from hard coal 31.2% lower at 27.3 TWh; generation using natural gas was 8.6% higher at 56.9 TWh, accounting for 13.2% [20]. Renewables accounted for 59.0% (254.9 TWh) of total generation, compared to 56.0% in 2023 [20]. Taken together, [20] and [21] indicate a limitation: [20] reports renewables at 59.0% of total generation [20], while [21] reports renewables at 58.5% of total generation for 2024 [21], without explaining the difference in the excerpts; [21] states this total-generation basis is calculated differently from the EEG basis of gross electricity consumption, for which AGEE-Stat's initial calculation at UBA put the share at around 54% [21].

  • Nuclear: 361.7 TWh or 67.1%, up nearly 13% from 320.4 TWh in 2023 [8]. Recovery followed 279.0 TWh in 2022 [14].
  • Wind 46.8 TWh or 8.7% and solar 24.8 TWh or 4.6% at historic solar record despite least sunny year in nearly thirty years [8].
  • Fossil 20.0 TWh lowest since early 1950s and below solar 24.8 TWh first time, with gas 17.4 TWh vs 29.2 TWh in 2023 and coal 0.7 TWh and oil 1.8 TWh [17].
  • Renewables record 150.0 TWh or 27.8% combining exceptional hydro 75.1 TWh with wind-plus-solar 71.6 TWh vs 45.8 TWh in 2019 [14]. Low-carbon hit 95% first time [26].

Gas generation was 86.7 TWh, accounting for 30.4% of total generation, UK Energy in Brief reports [22]. Wind generation was 83.3 TWh with a record 29.2% share, while solar generation was 14.4 TWh with a 5.0% share, DUKES reports [24]. Wind and solar generation was 97.7 TWh, accounting for 34.3% of total generation, UK Energy in Brief reports [22]. 2024 marks the first year where combined wind and solar generation surpassed gas-fired generation [22]. Electricity generation share from fossil fuels fell to 31.8 per cent, a record low and the latest in a downward trend which has seen the share decrease by 11 percentage points since 2021 [22]. Coal generation was 2.0 TWh, accounting for 0.7% of total generation [22]. The last remaining coal-fired power station - Ratcliffe-on-Soar - closed on 30 September 2024 [22]. Renewable sources accounted for 50.4 per cent of generation in 2024, exceeding a share of 50 per cent for the first time in the published data series [24]. Renewable generation increased by 5.1 per cent from 2023, reaching a new record high of 143.7 TWh [24]. Nuclear generation was stable at 40.6 TWh from 2023, accounting for 14.2% of total generation [22]. Taken together, [22] indicates lower demand/supply figures than generation figures, with generation figures of 86.7 TWh for gas, 40.6 TWh for nuclear and 97.7 TWh for wind and solar [22] against 84.2 TWh for gas demand, 37.3 TWh for nuclear supply and 97.2 TWh for wind and solar supply [22].

See the German generation discussion above on denominator comparability.

Comparison of 2024 generation totals and nuclear, wind, solar and fossil contributions on source-reported bases.

Country Total generation Nuclear Wind Solar Fossil
Germany 431.7 TWh in 2024 [20], as net electricity generation fed into the general supply network less the electricity consumed by power plants themselves, excluding electricity generated in the Deutsche Bahn network or within industrial networks and closed distribution networks [23] no contribution in 2024 [20] onshore 111.9 TWh, down 5.8%, 25.9% of total generation [20] 63.3 TWh (2023: 55.7 TWh) [23]; approx. 72.2 TWh in 2024, of which 59.8 TWh was fed into the public grid and 12.4 TWh was used for self-consumption [9] conventional 176.8 TWh, down 10.9% [20]
France 539.0 TWh in 2024 [8] 361.7 TWh in 2024, 67.1% [8] 46.8 TWh, 8.7% [8] 24.8 TWh in 2024, 4.6% [8] 20.0 TWh in 2024 [8]
UK 285.0 TWh in 2024 [24] 40.6 TWh in 2024, 14.2% in 2024 [24] 83.3 TWh, 1.4% up on 2023; 29.2% share in 2024 [24] 14.4 TWh, 1.9% down; 5.0% share [24] 31.8%, 4.8 percentage points down to record low [24]

Load, self-consumption, import-balance and carbon-intensity perimeters sit in their owning sections. Capacity, weather, operation, targets, EU aggregates and sub-annual evidence stay out of scope here.

3.3 Reconciling Generation Differences Across Primary Datasets

  • Annual 1990-2024 data are gross generation, published primarily by Eurostat with wind from IRENA [27].

  • 2023 figure is estimated gross based on monthly net, applying absolute net changes to most recent gross baseline [33].

  • 2025 figure is estimated gross similarly [27].

  • In EU Ember reports net monthly and gross yearly, and conversion may introduce error [33].

  • Where Ember reports gross it adjusts net-based factors by 6% thermal and 1% others [33].

  • Monthly published data is often provisional and far from perfect [27].

  • Hourly data mostly from ENTSO-E, with alternatives where ENTSO-E incomplete, e.g. distributed solar or industrial thermal [27].

  • Monthly data from ENTSO-E, Eurostat and national TSOs [27].

  • Where data published on monthly lag, recent months estimated on prior-year changes [33].

  • Where possible, multiple sources compared to confirm agreement [27].

For France, Ember lists ENTSO-E [27].

For Germany, gas and solar come from Energy-Charts, all other fuels from Agora Energiewende, flow data from ENTSO-E and yearly gas generation data from the Energy Institute, according to Ember [27]. Solar generation is analysed in countries where Ember has confirmation that some solar is absent in reporting (Austria, Czechia, Portugal, Romania, Spain, and Sweden) and also in Germany which displayed unusually low solar growth [33]. Ember reports that system operators in many countries are struggling to measure behind-the-meter solar accurately as capacity rapidly increases, and taking this and weather adjustments into account, estimates that solar generation probably grew by at least 47 TWh in 2023 rather than 36 TWh [33]. This structural under-reporting of solar generation also makes it appear that electricity demand is falling faster than it actually is [33]. Within Germany's generation data, Ember's analysis has identified an unusual trend of declining solar irradiance-adjusted performance over the past several years; Ember states that there is not yet a definitive explanation for why this is, but it could be related to challenges in measuring behind-the-meter solar generation, exacerbated recently by high levels of residential battery storage [33].

Geographical perimeter covered by data related to a given country may be restricted to the geographical part of the country which is connected to ENTSO-E network; for example, isolated islands which are not connected to ENTSO-E network may be excluded [6]. Once defined, the perimeter should be stable in time [6]. The ENTSO-E Transparency Platform was launched on 5 January 2015 in accordance with Regulation 543/2013 [12]. The information published by ENTSO-E is collected from data providers such as TSOs, power exchanges or other qualified third parties [12]. TSOs had voluntarily published some market data since 2011 on the https://transparency.entsoe.eu/ website, which was de-commissioned in March 2015 [12]. The historical data from 2011-2014, which was previously published on entsoe.net, is available to download from the Transparency Platform in the Data Pre-5.1.15 section [12].

Monthly Statistics provide basic figures on power systems of member TSOs, including production, consumption and cross-border exchanges, according to ENTSO-E [31]. The Monthly statistics is made available 2.5 months after the corresponding month, with the annotation n.a. replacing undelivered data and undelivered generation, load or consumption data replaced by the equivalent data of the same month and country from the previous year [6]. The Monthly Statistics reports are the basis for the Yearly Statistics & Adequacy Retrospect Report [31]. Monthly Statistics report the highest and lowest load on the 3rd Wednesday and load diagrams on the 3rd Wednesday [31].

The Yearly Statistics and Adequacy Retrospect is issued once the data is definitive, while Electricity in Europe and the Statistical Factsheet are based on provisional data [31]. The Yearly Statistics and Adequacy Retrospect provides a wide range of yearly figures on member transmission system operators’ power systems – including production, consumption, cross-border exchanges and network components [31]. The YS&AR is published together with all the background data used in separate spreadsheets [31]. The YS&AR report has been replaced first by the MAF in 2016, then by the ERAA in 2021 [31].

Fraunhofer ISE analysis is based on German net electricity generation for public electricity supply, which is the energy fed into the public grid [9]. Its first version of the annual analysis considers all electricity generation data from EEX and ENTSO-E up to Dec 31, 2023 [13]. The first version of the 2025 annual evaluation dated January 1, 2026, takes into account all electricity generation data from EEX up to and including December 31, 2025 [30]. The quarter-hourly values from the EEX were energetically corrected using monthly Destatis electricity generation data up to Sept 2023 [13]. The quarter-hourly values from EEX and ENTSO-E were energy-corrected using Destatis monthly generation data up to and including September 2025 and monthly import-export data up to and including October 2025 [30]. For the remaining months, the correction factors were estimated based on previous monthly and annual data [13], while for the remaining months, the correction factors were estimated on the basis of past annual data [30]. The extrapolated values from October to December are subject to larger tolerances [13]. The extrapolated values are subject to greater tolerances [30].

Installed capacity reached 155.5 GW at end-December 2024, excluding the 1.6 GW Flamanville reactor coupled on 21 December 2024 because commissioning was planned for 2025, according to RTE [14]. Renewable hydro was 69.8 TWh of 75.1 TWh total hydro after subtracting 70% of STEP pumping consumption under EU Directive 2009/28/CE, according to RTE [8]. Reference temperatures are averages of past series deemed representative of the current decade, calculated by RTE for France from 32 stations using Météo-France data [8]. EU 2024 electricity consumption is flagged as not corrected for weather and calendar effects, unlike French corrected consumption, according to RTE [14]. EU end-2024 installed solar capacity of 338 GW, up 66 GW versus 2023, comes from Ember, according to RTE [14]. Cut-off excluded Flamanville [14].

Ember's European Electricity Review analyses full-year electricity generation and demand data for 2023 in all EU-27 countries [33]. DESNZ treats nuclear primary energy as heat content of steam leaving the reactor for the turbine [5]. Wind, small-scale hydro and solar PV capacity is de-rated by DESNZ for intermittency to compare with conventional fuels, with total installed capacity separately in DUKES Table 5.12 [5]. UK 2025 generation from Major Power Producers was 232.8 TWh (79.3% share) plus 60.7 TWh from autogenerators and other generators, according to DESNZ [5]. These goals, similar to the NESO target, exclude Northern Ireland, CHP and waste incinerators but include distributed renewables, such as solar and onshore wind, Carbon Brief reports [35]. NESO forecasts the carbon intensity and generation mix of electricity consumed across 14 geographical regions in Great Britain, with boundaries defined according to Distribution Network Operator (DNO) boundaries [16]. Electricity generation data for the Netherlands being insufficiently detailed, this country is excluded from the rest of the analysis, which does not compromise accuracy because the Netherlands accounted for a mere 6% of Germany net imports of electricity in 2024 H1, Renewable Energy Institute analysis notes [36].

Taken together, [21] and [28] indicate that year-to-year reading involves both data that may be updated and precipitation that differed between 2024 and 2025. SMARD data from Germany's transmission system operators may be updated on the basis of new findings, according to Bundesnetzagentur [21]. 2024 was one of the ten wettest years since 1959, while cumulative precipitation in 2025 was near normal, according to RTE [28]. German offshore wind was 25.7 TWh in 2024 versus 23.5 TWh in 2023, according to Fraunhofer ISE [9]. French offshore wind reached 5.7 TWh in 2025, up 1.7 TWh (about +43%) on 2024, according to RTE [28]. EDF nuclear production was 373 TWh in 2025, 11.3 TWh more than in 2024, according to EDF-reported figures [37]. The final three units — Isar 2, Emsland and Neckarwestheim 2 — remained operational until 15 April 2023, when they were officially disconnected from the grid [18]. Ember benchmarks the 2025 annual increase in solar generation against equivalent annual electricity production from France's nuclear plants assuming 68% capacity factor and 3.3 GW average plant capacity, according to Ember [27]. The Nuclear Industry Association analysis was based on National Energy System Operator monthly energy statistics from January 2025 through August 2025 [34].

RTE reports the average carbon intensity of French electricity production in 2024 as 21.7 gCO2eq/kWh [14] and 30.2 gCO2eq/kWh taking into account emissions over the entire lifecycle [14]. Ember emission factors are domestic electricity generation mix (production mix), based on electricity generated within the country, excluding imports [10] and combine both upstream and generation-related emissions within a single factor [10], according to Ember. Ember combines country-level power generation data with fuel-specific emissions coefficients to estimate total emissions and carbon intensity [10], reporting Total (CO2e, AR5) [10], according to Ember. The source reports emissions in g/kWh, which have been converted to kgCO2e/kWh to ensure consistency [10], according to Climatiq. Demand is calculated as the sum of generation and net imports, and validated against direct demand figures published by ENTSO-E [27], with net imports from 1990 to 2022 also published by Eurostat, with recent data estimated in the same manner as generation [33], according to Ember. The assumptions for the emission factors are standardised across RTE's different reports (including its Reliability Reports and Annual Electricity Reviews) [3]. Each emission factor combines the primary emission factor of the fuel (gas, coal, fuel oil, household waste) from the ADEME Carbon Footprint Database with the average yield of the energy source from RTE's internal assumptions and analyses, in line with ENTSO-E guidelines [3]. Lifecycle greenhouse-gas emissions are 16 gCO2eq/kWh for onshore wind, 17 gCO2eq/kWh for offshore wind, 43 gCO2eq/kWh for solar PV, 7 gCO2eq/kWh for nuclear and 6 gCO2eq/kWh for hydro, compared with 941 gCO2eq/kWh for coal plants, 928 gCO2eq/kWh for oil plants and 389 gCO2eq/kWh for gas combined cycles [32].

Ember analysis suggests Germany's coal mine methane emissions could be 28 to 220 times higher than officially reported, according to Ember [29]. RTE disclaims liability for any use of the published data and for forecasts proving inaccurate [2].

Comparison of dataset vintage and correction rules.

Dataset Monthly / provisional handling Yearly / correction rule
Ember In EU, monthly net generation [33]; lagged recent months estimated and flagged [27] Annual 1990–2024 gross generation [27]; where reporting gross, 6% thermal and 1% other adjustment [33]
ENTSO-E Monthly Statistics made available 2.5 months after month, undelivered data marked n.a. [6] Yearly Statistics and Adequacy Retrospect issued once data are definitive, while Electricity in Europe and Statistical Factsheet use provisional data [31]
Fraunhofer ISE 2025 evaluation: quarter-hourly EEX and ENTSO-E energy-corrected with Destatis generation to Sep 2025 and import-export to Oct 2025 [30] 2025 evaluation cut-off 31 Dec 2025 [30]; extrapolated values subject to greater tolerances [30]
RTE EU 2024 consumption not corrected for weather-calendar [14] End-December 2024 capacity excludes 1.6 GW Flamanville coupled 21 Dec 2024 [14]

3.4 2024 Net Imports Exports and Interconnector Flows

Net balances subtract exports from imports, Carbon Brief defines [35]. Exchange balances use metered physical flows at agreed accounting points on every voltage-level interconnection, ENTSO-E guidelines state [6]. Commercial exchanges result from cross-border market transactions while physical exchanges record actual flows on directly linking interconnectors and may differ, RTE explains [8]. Bundesnetzagentur's monitoring report warns commercial schedules and physical load flows need not match because of loop flows [7]. Hourly moves mainly reflect continent-wide economic optimisation, so an import does not generally signal a physical supply need, RTE notes [41]. Eurostat publishes net imports for 1990 to 2024 [27].

Germany was a net importer in commercial foreign trade [20]. In commercial foreign trade, Germany imported a total of 67.0 TWh (2023: 54.3 TWh) and exported 35.1 TWh (2023: 39.0 TWh) [23]. Taken together, [20] and [23] indicate those commercial totals are the 67.0 TWh of electricity Germany imported in 2024, up 23.2% on the previous year's figure of 54.3 TWh [20], with imports about 23.2% up and exports 10.1% down compared with 2023 [23]. Germany's electricity exports were down 10.1% to 35.1 TWh [20]. In 2023 the amount of electricity that Germany had imported was 15.3 TWh higher than the amount it had exported, and this figure rose in 2024 to 31.9 TWh [20]. Taken together, [23] and [21] indicate differing totals for 2024 commercial foreign trade, with the source giving "2024: 77.2 TWh" for imports [21] and "2024: 48.9 TWh" for exports [21] compared with a total of 67.0 TWh imports and 35.1 TWh exports [23], and the source's 2024 commercial foreign-trade figures show that electricity imports exceeded exports [21]. Data on the platform is provided by the German transmission system operators and may be updated on the basis of new findings [21].

The United Kingdom ended 2024 as a large net importer while France ended as a large net exporter, DUKES and RTE show [24][17].

Headline import, export and net balances compared.

Country imports exports net balance
France 12.3 TWh of imports in 2024 [17] 101.3 TWh exported to all neighbours in 2024 [17] 89 TWh net trade balance in 2024 [17]
United Kingdom Total imports rose by 31 per cent to 43.7 TWh, a new record high within the published time series [24] Total exports increased by 9 per cent from 2023 to reach 10.3 TWh, the second highest value for total exports within the published time series, after 2022 [24] Net imports rose by 40 per cent from 2023 to reach 33.4 TWh, the highest value within the published time series [24]

Taken together, [24] and [38] indicate different vintages for the United Kingdom export figures: total exports increased by 9 per cent from 2023 to reach 10.3 TWh [24], while total exports halved compared to 2022, reaching 9.5 TWh, but were still the second highest annual figure [38].

[43] presents the values for cross-border physical electricity flows, which are slightly lower than those of the cross-border electricity market [43]. In that physical-flow boundary, the difference is between electricity imports (around 77 TWh) and electricity exports (around 49 TWh) [43]. Cross-border electricity trade data for 2024 shows a total electricity exchange balance of approximately 28 TWh, which can be viewed as a net electricity import [43]. Imports rose to a net total of 24.9 TWh in 2024, with the most important import countries being France (import balance 12.9 TWh) and Denmark (12.0 TWh) [9]. For commercial foreign trade, Germany imported electricity with the source giving “2024: 77.2 TWh” [21] and exported electricity with the source giving “2024: 48.9 TWh” [21]. The source’s 2024 commercial foreign-trade figures show that electricity imports exceeded exports [21]. By 2024, Germany’s electricity exports were recorded at 57,400 GWh [18]. Taken together, [43][9][21] and [18] indicate separate source-boundary totals rather than one reconciled figure: [43] states a physical-flow boundary, [21] states a commercial foreign-trade boundary, and [18] in its excerpt states no boundary for the 57,400 GWh figure. Data on the platform is provided by the German transmission system operators and may be updated on the basis of new findings [21].

France was Germany's largest supplier at 15,691.9 GWh imports for 2,852.2 GWh exports, SMARD records [20]. Denmark supplied 15.1 TWh in 2024 after supplying 13.3 TWh as the largest supplier in 2023, SMARD reports [20]. On Denmark 1, imports reached 11,022.5 GWh against 2,159.2 GWh exports, according to SMARD [20]. Denmark 2 recorded 4,063.2 GWh imports for 974.6 GWh exports, according to SMARD [20]. For Switzerland, 9,872.6 GWh arrived for 2,805.4 GWh returned, SMARD records [20]. From Norway, 7,042.9 GWh arrived for 1,227.7 GWh returned, SMARD records [20]. The Netherlands sent 6,341.8 GWh while receiving 3,841.1 GWh, SMARD records [20]. Belgian imports were 4,515.8 GWh against 1,779.1 GWh exports, according to SMARD [20]. Swedish imports totalled 2,992.7 GWh with 386.5 GWh returned, SMARD records [20].

Germany again exported the largest amount of electricity (9.2 TWh) to Austria, SMARD data show [20]. Germany exported 9,162.0 GWh to Austria and imported 1,747.4 GWh from Austria, SMARD records [20]. Germany exported 5,109.8 GWh to Poland and imported 1,604.3 GWh from Poland, according to SMARD [20]. Germany exported 4,729.5 GWh to Czechia and imported 1,932.9 GWh from Czechia, SMARD reports [20].

Net imports reached 11.2 TWh in the first half of 2024, according to Renewable EI [36]. That equalled 4% of the country’s electricity consumption, according to Renewable EI [36]. The country from which Germany net imports of electricity was the highest was France (6.3 TWh) [36]. And France accounted for ‘only’ 35% of Germany net imports [36]. Other countries included Denmark (4.6 TWh), Switzerland (2.5 TWh), Norway (2.4 TWh), Belgium (1.5 TWh), the Netherlands (1.1 TWh), and Sweden (1.0 TWh) [36]. Net imports from France and these six other countries totaled 19.5 TWh [36]. In the same period, Germany was a net exporter of electricity to Austria, Poland, Luxembourg, and the Czech Republic (8.2 TWh in total) [36].

The 2024 net-import total is covered under Headline import, export and net balances compared above; that surplus was mainly due to the low summer electricity prices in nearby countries like France and Denmark [15]. This was due, in particular, to the lower electricity generation costs in neighboring European countries in the summer and the high cost of CO2 certificates, while the average volume-weighted day-ahead exchange electricity price fell by around 15.5% to €78.01/MWh in 2024 from €92.29/MWh in 2023 [9]. The shift toward a net import surplus observed over the last two years is essentially due to the significant decline in electricity generation from coal-fired power plants and the shutdown of nuclear power plants [43]. An expected additional generation of around 26.5 TWh roughly corresponds to the 2024 import balance [43].

Taken together, [13] and [7] indicate a shift to import surplus in 2023: after an export surplus of 27.1 TWh achieved in electricity trading in 2022, there was an import surplus of 11.7 TWh in 2023, with most imports from Denmark (10.7 TWh), Norway (4.6 TWh) and Sweden (2.9 TWh), according to Fraunhofer ISE [13], while in 2023 imports exceeded exports for the first time with about 40 TWh of exports and around 51 TWh of imports out of 91 TWh traded, according to the monitoring report [7]. See the cross-border trade paragraph above for 2024. For 2023, Renewable EI separately reports that Germany turned into a net importer for the first time since 2002 at 9.2 TWh [36], or 2% of the country’s electricity consumption defined as generation plus imports minus exports [36]. The 11.7 TWh [13] and 9.2 TWh [36] totals for 2023 differ and are given here as reported by each source. Germany was a net exporter of electricity to France uninterruptedly between 2012 and 2022, according to Renewable EI [36].

See the ‘Headline import, export and net balances compared’ table for the 2024 import, export and net-import totals. [24] reports total imports rose by 31 per cent to a new record high within the published time series, net imports rose by 40 per cent from 2023, while total exports increased by 9 per cent from 2023 to the second highest value for total exports within the published time series, after 2022 [24]. The United Kingdom returned to being a net electricity importer in 2023, with net imports totalling a record 23.8 TWh [38]. In 2022, the United Kingdom had been a net exporter for the first time in more than 40 years, with net exports totalling 5.3 TWh [38]. In 2022, total exports were 20.8 TWh, and net exports totalled 5.3 TWh [24]. The primary reason for this atypical situation was the widespread outages in the French nuclear fleet, increasing the demand for exported electricity to France [38]. [38] states total exports halved compared to 2022, reaching 9.5 TWh, but were still the second highest annual figure [38]. A separate tally gives the record 33.3 TWh net import total for 2024 [34]. [44] refers to a previous record of 24.6 TWh set in 2021 [44]; this differs from the 2023 UK total of 23.8 TWh that [38] calls a record [38], and the excerpts do not resolve the difference in scope or time-series. Taken together, [24] and [38] indicate a swing from atypical 2022 exports to higher imports afterwards. Demand for electricity is usually met by UK generation and supplemented with imports from Europe when price differentials are favourable [5]. The system operator says the UK tends to import power because it has higher baseload prices than in Europe [34]. For decades, Britain has imported more electricity than it exported [39].

The France-UK interconnectors accounted for 19.5 TWh of net imports, followed by Norway-UK with net imports of 9.6 TWh, Belgium-UK with net imports of 4.2 TWh, and then Denmark-UK with net imports of 3.7 TWh [24]. The interconnectors with both France and Norway supplied record imports in 2024 [24]. The Ireland-Wales interconnector saw net exports of 2.7 TWh, and the Northern Ireland-Ireland interconnector contributed 2.4 TWh of net exports to the total [24]. The UK was a net importer from all interconnected countries except the Republic of Ireland, which is connected to the UK through land connections from Northern Ireland and an interconnector cable from Wales [24]. The Denmark-UK interconnector commenced operation in the last week of December 2023, so 2024 was the first year the interconnector was fully functional throughout [24]. The France-UK interconnectors accounted for 12.9 TWh of net imports, followed by Norway-UK with 8.5 TWh of net imports [38]. The Belgium-UK interconnector accounted for 3.0 TWh of net imports and the Netherlands-UK interconnector 2.7 TWh [38]. The Ireland-Wales interconnector saw net exports of 1.7 TWh and the Northern Ireland-Ireland interconnector contributed 1.6 TWh of net exports to the total [38]. Norway is the second largest exporter of power to the UK, mainly from hydro [44]. Taken together, [24] and [38] indicate separate reported interconnector figures; the cited excerpts for those figures state no year [24][38]. Taken together, [24][17] and [41] indicate different source figures for the France-United Kingdom exchange: 19.5 TWh of net imports accounted for by the France-UK interconnectors [24] compared with United Kingdom (+20.1 TWh) in a passage stating “In 2024, France exported significant quantities across all its borders” [17] and “Le solde annuel s’est élevé à 20,1 TWh” in a passage stating “En 2024” [41]; the cited excerpt for the 19.5 TWh figure states no year [24], so this comparison makes no year claim for that figure and this block reports only the figure stated in [24].

19.8% of demand was met by overseas sources over the three months to June [39]. Great Britain net imported 14.95 TWh of electricity from January through May 2024, according to the National Grid Electricity System Operator monthly reports [44]. Net electricity imports to Great Britain totalled a record 9 TWh in the first quarter of 2024 [44]. Average monthly share in 2024 was 14.4% [34]. Net imports have accounted for 15% of GB power [44]. June seeing the highest ever proportion of imported electricity at 19%, according to ESO data [44]. July saw the highest ever proportion of imported electricity to Britain, making up 19.5% of the mix, second only to gas [34]. Taken together, [44] and [34] indicate July’s 19.5% exceeded June’s 19%. National Grid ESO said interconnectors have “higher clearing prices for imports than exports” and that “the higher price in Great Britain means imports are more likely to occur over the summer period” [44]. Links to Belgium, the Netherlands and Denmark are used as two-way trading routes that balance intermittent wind and solar, importing 4% and exporting 2% of national supply over the year [40]. Three links to Ireland export a further 2% [40]. This puts Great Britain on track to import nearly 36 TWh over the whole year [44]. Importing 36 TWh is equivalent to enough power to 10.8 million homes [44]. The cost of imported electricity rose to over £250 million per month [39]. Up to one third of national electricity demand can already be imported [40].

France largely exported to all borders in 2024 [14][17]. The net export balance to Germany–Belgium in 2024 was 27.2 TWh [17]. The net export balance to Italy in 2024 was 22.3 TWh [17]. France was a net exporter of 20.1 TWh to the United Kingdom in 2024, the highest annual total since exchanges began in 1986 [17][41]. Taken together, [17][41] and [24] indicate different totals for the France–United Kingdom exchange: 20.1 TWh net exports in 2024 in [17][41] versus 19.5 TWh net imports via France-UK interconnectors in [24]. The net export balance to Switzerland in 2024 was 16.7 TWh [17]. The net export balance to Spain in 2024 was 2.8 TWh after France was a net monthly importer from Spain through April and the direction reversed from May [17][41]. The average monthly net export balance was 6.3 TWh from January to the end of April and in December, and 8.2 TWh between May and November [17]. France kept a clearly net exporter position throughout 2024, with from mid-November punctual imports, notably from Germany, Great Britain and Spain, particularly during periods of very high wind output in those countries [41]. It was an exporter across all its borders a third of the time [17]. In 2024, about thirty situations saw exchanges between France and Germany and Belgium vary by nearly 10 GW over a 3-hour period [41]. Maximum exchange capacity between France and Great Britain reached 4 GW after IFA2 in 2020 and ElecLink in 2022 added to the original 2 GW IFA2000 [41]. Growth of French net exports between 2023 and 2024 was plus 24.8 TWh to Germany and Belgium and plus 13.8 TWh combined to Great Britain, Spain and Italy [41]. In 2024, France exported a historically high volume to Germany and Belgium with a net balance of +27.2 TWh, compared with the highest annual net exporter balance recorded over 2001-2023 of 15.9 TWh in 2003 [41]. France is Europe's largest net exporter of power [34].

97% of imports from one of the country’s borders were simultaneously re-exported across one or more other borders: these are through flows [17]. RTE’s analysis, which tracks electricity trade flows beyond direct neighbours (“extended European scope”), shows that net exports from France to Germany over this period (240 GWh in total) were much higher than bilateral exports (103 GWh in total): much of the volume exported from France to Germany passed through third countries, particularly Switzerland and Belgium [17]. Germany’s imports reached the highest proportion of the year (325 GWh), across all its borders, particularly from Switzerland (64 GWh), Denmark (50 GWh), the Netherlands (44 GWh) and France (37 GWh), taking bilateral commercial trade into account [17]. The countries that exported the most to Germany during the December Dunkelflaute were France (240 GWh), Norway (168 GWh) and the Netherlands (157 GWh) [17]. The analysis reveals that the leading importer from France in 2024 was Italy (32%), followed by Germany (18%), Belgium (15%), the UK and Portugal [17]. Italy represented 32% of French exports (29 TWh) compared with 22% considering only direct bilateral flows [41]. The leading non-neighbouring country among those importing from France is Portugal, with 6% of the volume (5.5 TWh), and about 12% of French exports, or 11 TWh, were destined for the rest of Europe [41]. In 2024, the proportion of imports from the Iberian Peninsula crossing France to other European countries reached 98% (93% considering only re-exports to borders excluding Switzerland and Italy) [41]. The volume of imports supplying French consumption, in the sense of this approach, was extremely low: less than 1 TWh during the year [41]. RTE analysed exchanges by crossing all commercial flows at European scale: this method makes visible the moments during which electricity only transits a country [14].

French exports replaced fossil-fired generation abroad in 2024, RTE data show [17]. Net valuation totalled 5 billion euros in 2024, with the export balance 78% higher than in 2023 but net valuation only 30% higher than in 2023, RTE notes [41]. The average French spot price in 2024 was 58 euros per MWh, with 46 TWh exported when the price was below the average and 44 TWh when the price was above the average, while the average imported MWh was nearly 30% lower than the average price, RTE notes [41]. French exports helped avoid 19.8 MtCO2eq across Europe in 2024, more than the emissions from French generation, with more than a third of the avoided emissions in Italy and a quarter in Germany, RTE finds [17].

Britain overtook Germany to become the most inter-connected large power system in Europe [40]. Britain now has 10 interconnectors with 10.3 GW of capacity linking into neighbouring systems [40]. Great Britain currently has ten such interconnectors, connecting to Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Northern Ireland, and the Republic of Ireland, providing a total operational capacity of 10.3GW [42]. The NeuConnect link to Germany is currently under construction, but not scheduled for completion until 2028 [40]. An additional 1.4GW of interconnector capacity to Germany is under construction [42]. A further 6.05GW of interconnection projects are in development following regulatory approval from Ofgem in 2024 [42]. Britain left Europe's shared electricity market back in 2021 [40]. Under market-based operation, the direction of flow of electricity is determined by price arbitrage between two connected markets, with the interconnector carrying electricity from the lower-priced market to the higher-priced one [42]. National Grid estimates put £1 billion added to the cost of power trading since Brexit [40]. Following the UK's exit from the EU, Great Britain no longer participates in the IEM, and most interconnector capacity rights are instead traded separately to the electricity volumes, which can lead to periods of inefficient or sub-optimal flows, where electricity may flow from a higher-priced market to a lower-priced market, and to under-utilisation of interconnector capacity [42]. The British electricity system is insular and asynchronous with all its neighbours, exports to France only in situations of significant tension on the French supply-demand balance, such as in summer 2022, and since the United Kingdom's exit from the European Union in 2020 exchanges with Great Britain are characterised by absence of coupling with continental markets [41]. Interconnectors can help reduce the level of renewable energy curtailment by providing access to export markets [42]. This helped reduce reliance on more expensive fossil fuel generation in Great Britain and lower overall system costs [42]. Interconnection share is measured as the total interconnector capacity relative to total generating capacity [40]. Germany has grid interconnections with neighboring countries representing 10% of domestic capacity [18]. The EU asked all member states to build cross-border interconnector capacity equal to at least 10% of their total generating fleet by 2020, rising to 15% by 2030 [40].

3.5 Imports and Generation Versus Consumption Carbon Intensity

The Carbon Intensity service defines intensity as CO2 emissions produced per kilowatt hour of electricity consumed [16]. RTE’s Eco2mix indicator excludes greenhouse gases from construction of generation facilities and from fuel extraction, processing and transport [3]. RTE splits direct from life-cycle [17][32]. Details sit in the accounting-definitions section.

Great Britain treats consumed intensity as a modelled network outcome, according to the Carbon Intensity service [16]. The Carbon Intensity service estimates the ‘actual’ value from metered generation while the forecast value is modelled [16]. The Carbon Intensity forecast includes emissions from all large metered power stations, interconnector imports and transmission and distribution losses, and accounts for national electricity demand and embedded wind and solar generation [16]. The Carbon Intensity API covers every GB region [16]. It forecasts intensity and generation mix 96+ hours ahead using machine learning and power system modelling, the API reports [16]. A reduced GB network model calculates power flows to estimate regional consumed intensity, considering active and reactive power flows, system losses and impedance characteristics [16]. Hourly, daily and seasonal variation follows electricity demand and low-carbon generation from wind, solar, hydro, nuclear and biomass versus conventional generation, according to the Carbon Intensity service [16].

Emissions associated with UK electricity supplies include emissions embedded in imported electricity and lifecycle emissions associated with imported biomass [47]. The carbon intensity methodology accounts for lifecycle emissions from biomass and includes emissions for imported electricity, based on the daily electricity mix in the country of origin [47][35]. Minimum carbon intensity record of 19g CO2/kWh on 15 April [25]. Lowest carbon intensity year, averaging at 125 CO2/kWh [25]. Overall, UK electricity became slightly more polluting in 2025, with each kilowatt hour linked to 126g of carbon dioxide (gCO2/kWh), up 2% from the record low of 124gCO2/kWh, set last year [35]. Specifically, the carbon intensity of electricity fell to just 124gCO2/kWh in 2024 [47].

Decarbonised French output alone covered 99.5% of consumption in 2024, RTE reports [14]. The small volume France imported was much less carbon-intensive than electricity from the most efficient gas plants, signalling a large low-carbon share, RTE reports [32]. RTE puts production and consumption below 10 gCO2eq/kWh nearly half the time [32], and reports intensity never exceeded 70 gCO2eq/kWh even during periods of high consumption [17].

The carbon intensity of French consumption, taking electricity trading with other countries into account, was 20.0 gCO2e/kWh [46]. In 2025, this intensity remained limited even during periods of high consumption, reaching a maximum of 58 gCO2e/kWh [46].

German imports cut 33.3g off consumed intensity in 2024, Electricity Maps reports [45].

  • That gap shows imports were cleaner than domestic production and lowers the footprint of consumed electricity [45].
  • A 27.2g gap persisted in 2025, Electricity Maps reports [45].

Germany relies relatively heavily on fossil fuels for production yet imports nuclear power from France, leaving consumption-based intensity lower than production-based, according to a Nature dataset paper [48].

Synthesis: trade explains the drop [45][48].

The table compares Germany’s 2024 production-based and flow-traced intensity [45].

Boundary 2024 intensity
Production-based 367.8 gCO₂eq/kWh [45]
Flow-traced 334.5 gCO₂eq/kWh [45]

In 2024, an average of 363 grams of CO2 was emitted per kilowatt hour of electricity consumed in Germany (compared to 433 g/kWh in 2022) [18].

Taken together, [18] and [45] indicate different reported 2024 values, with [45] reporting for Germany in 2024 367.8 gCO2eq/kWh production-based and 334.5 gCO2eq/kWh flow-traced [45].

Driven by increased domestic renewable energy production, imported electricity and a decline in energy-intensive industries, Germany's carbon dioxide emissions fell to their lowest level in 2024 since the 1950s [49].

Even when net imports are mentioned to be included, for a specific country, the emissions still reflect the production mix rather than a grid mix [10].

NESO set out pathways to clean power by 2030 that would see carbon intensity falling to 50gCO2/kWh or lower, depending on how it is measured [47]. While the £18/t surcharge is still in place, Britain’s market now trades at around £20/t lower than Europe’s [39].

4. Discussion

Taken together, [17][32] and [45] indicate French electricity generation intensity in 2024 was lower than German production-based intensity in 2024.

The average carbon intensity of French electricity generation for 2024 reported in the Findings [17][32] is compared here with Germany's production-based carbon intensity in 2024 of 367.8 gCO2eq/kWh [45].

French 2024 generation totals by source are tabulated in the Findings and in the generation table in this Discussion and are not restated here.

The carbon-intensity methodology is described with the intensity table in this Discussion and is not restated here.

Country-level generation volumes, fuel breakdowns and renewable/low-carbon shares, including photovoltaic fed-to-grid versus self-consumption splits and actual-generation boundary definitions, are detailed in full in Findings-1:1 to Findings-1:3 and the summary tables and are not repeated here. Taken together, [9] and [17] with [24] indicate higher absolute wind and solar volumes in the German net public electricity generation figures for 2024 than in the French wind-plus-solar production figure for 2024 and the British generation figures for 2024. Taken together, [23] with [17] and [47] indicate larger conventional/fossil volumes in the German conventional generation figure than in the French fossil-fired figure and the British gas-fired figure for 2024. Taken together, [14] with [23] and [24] indicate a higher reported low-carbon share of electricity produced in France than the reported renewables shares of total generation in the German and British figures.

Country, 2024 boundary Where the 2024 breakdown is reported in full
France, national generation [8][17] See Findings-1:2; totals comparison in Findings-1:0
Germany, net fed to general supply [20][23] See Findings-1:1; totals comparison in Findings-1:0
United Kingdom, generation [22][24] See Findings-1:3; totals comparison in Findings-1:0

Detailed German technology totals are covered in findings-1:1, the German total definition in findings-1:0, the DESNZ generation–supply distinction, French consumption and self-consumption perimeters, pumped-storage treatment, the French emissions-indicator consolidation, Ember estimation and source details, and October–December tolerances in the sections that cover them in full; this block retains only the scope limitation and the gross-consumption figure. Taken together, [9] and [21] indicate that 2024 German solar figures use different fed-into-grid scopes with different self-consumption treatment: [9] analyses German net electricity generation for the public electricity supply defined as energy fed into the public grid [9], while [21] includes only electricity generated and fed into the general supply network and excludes electricity from private household solar installations used by the households themselves [21]. French gross electricity consumption was 442.2 TWh in 2024, including 1.4 TWh consumed on 29 February [8].

The trade, intensity, methodology and hourly-trade interpretation details are set out in the country comparison table and methodology discussion. For 2024 United Kingdom net imports the excerpts in this block disagree on the value: [24] reports 33.4 TWh as the highest value within the published time series, while [34] reports a record 33.3 TWh net import total for 2024.

On a total-generation basis, wind amounted to about 137.6 TWh for a 31.8 percent share of total generation in 2024 [49]. In the same year solar electricity production jumped 18 percent while wind remained Germany's most important electricity source [15].

These commercial-versus-physical, through-flow and extended-scope, French intensity-boundary, and German solar-measurement details are discussed elsewhere in the Discussion.

5. Conclusion

RTE reported the carbon intensity of French electricity production at 21.7 gCO2eq/kWh in 2024 [14], and at 30.2 gCO2eq/kWh when accounting for emissions over the full lifecycle [14].

ElectricityMaps reported Germany at 367.8 gCO2eq/kWh production-based and 334.5 gCO2eq/kWh flow-traced in 2024 [45].

Carbon Brief reported the carbon intensity of UK electricity at 124gCO2/kWh in 2024 [47], including emissions for imported electricity based on the daily electricity mix in the country of origin [47] and accounting for lifecycle emissions from biomass [47].

Taken together, [14][45] and [47] indicate the French 21.7 gCO2eq/kWh production figure is numerically lower than the German production-based figure and the UK figure, with the cited excerpts describing the French 30.2 gCO2eq/kWh figure as including full lifecycle emissions, the German figures as production-based and flow-traced, and the UK figure as including import emissions and biomass lifecycle emissions.

France generated 539.0 TWh in 2024 [8], with low-carbon (nuclear and renewable) production reaching 95% of electricity produced in France for the first time [14]. Germany generated 431.7 TWh in 2024 [23], with 2024 the first full year without any contribution from nuclear energy [20]. For German net public electricity generation, wind contributed 136.4 TWh or 33 percent to net public electricity generation in 2024 [9], with extrapolated values from October to December subject to larger tolerances [9]. Ember estimates that solar generation probably grew by at least 47 TWh in 2023 rather than 36 TWh [33], noting that system operators in many countries are struggling to measure behind-the-meter solar accurately as capacity rapidly increases [33].

DUKES reports UK electricity generation fell to 285.0 TWh in 2024, due to record-high electricity imports which displaced some UK-based generation [24]. DUKES reports UK 2024 net imports of 33.4 TWh, up 40 per cent from 2023 and the highest value within the published time series [24]. Taken together, [24] and [34] indicate different reported UK 2024 net-import totals, with DUKES reporting 33.4 TWh [24] and [34] reporting a record 33.3 TWh net import total for 2024 [34]. DUKES reports France-UK interconnectors accounted for 19.5 TWh of UK net imports in 2024 [24]. RTE reports that in 2024 France exported significant quantities across all its borders, including United Kingdom (+20.1 TWh) [17]. RTE distinguishes 2024 French gross exports of 101.3 TWh and imports of 12.3 TWh from a net export balance of 89 TWh, exceeding the 76 TWh record from 2002, with France a net exporter 98% of the time [17]. French exports replacing fossil-fired generation abroad avoided 19.8 MtCO2eq across Europe in 2024 [17]. For Germany in 2024, Fraunhofer ISE analysis based on net electricity generation for public supply reports imports rising to a net total of 24.9 TWh [9], while SMARD reports an import surplus rising from 15.3 TWh in 2023 to 31.9 TWh in 2024 [20], from 67.0 TWh imports in 2024, up 23.2% from 54.3 TWh, and 35.1 TWh exports, down 10.1% [20], with Bundesnetzagentur placing 67.0 TWh imports and 35.1 TWh exports in commercial foreign trade [23]. ElectricityMaps reports German 2024 production-based and flow-traced intensities [45], and Carbon Brief methodology includes emissions for imported electricity based on the daily electricity mix in the country of origin and lifecycle emissions from biomass [47].

reader scenario recommended choice deciding factor
Rank domestic fleets [3][10] Taken together, [3] and [10] indicate use generation/production intensity excluding imports [3][10] Excludes energy exchanges at interconnections [3] and excludes imports [10]
Assess electricity actually used [16] Taken together, [16] and [47] indicate use consumed intensity including imports [16][47] Per kilowatt hour of electricity consumed [16], including interconnector imports and transmission and distribution losses [16]; includes emissions for imported electricity, based on the daily electricity mix in the country of origin [47]
Quote German renewable share [21][23][9] Taken together, [21][23] and [9] indicate name denominator: total generation, gross consumption or load [21][23][9] Total-generation basis calculated differently from gross-consumption basis [21][23]; The load includes the electricity consumption from the grid and the grid losses, but not the pumped electricity consumption and the own consumption of conventional power plants [9]

Taken together, [3][10][16][45][47] indicate domestic-generation scope excluding imports [3][10] differs from consumed and flow-traced scope including imports [16][47] and exchanges [45].

For comparison with historical values, gross electricity generation must be considered, as figures for net electricity generation have only been available since 2002 [9].

In the German net electricity generation analysis, extrapolated October-December values are subject to larger tolerances [9].

Monthly published data are often reported provisionally, and where data are published on a monthly lag recent months are estimated based on relative changes in previous years [27].

NESO pathways to clean power by 2030 would see carbon intensity falling to 50 g or lower, depending how it is measured.[47]

References

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